Epigenetic change is a naturally occurring phenomenon influenced by age, disease, lifestyle and the environment. Epigenetics is the study of changes of organisms caused by a modification of gene expression, which results in certain genes being switched ‘on’ and ‘off’. Yehuda et al 10 suggest a critical consideration relating to transgenerational aspects of trauma – more specifically epigenetics. Existing neurobiological and psychological frameworks do not really explain chronic trauma responsesĪnd why the psychological effects of trauma can be long lasting and transformative. Complex trauma and geneticsĪ further intriguing aspect relates to complex trauma and genetics. Trauma causes imbalance in the nervous system, thus creating blockages or incomplete information processing. Only 25 per cent of traumatised children meet the criteria for PTSD, which is an argument for why childhood trauma should be considered differently from that of adult trauma. It is important to remember that these diagnostic frameworks are based upon adults’ experiences of trauma. The problem with the current PTSD diagnostics frameworks 8,9 is that they are limiting and insufficiently capture the myriad of trauma experiences clients encounter. Research shows that the younger the child is at the time of the trauma, the less likely he or she will be to remember the event. When people experience traumatic events as adults, they are less likely to dissociate conscious memories of the events than children whoĮxperience trauma. The extremely stressful experiences caused by natural or accidental disasters (earthquakes, plane crashes, violent weather etc) are more likely to be remembered by individuals than traumatic events deliberately caused by humans (eg incest, torture, war crimes). 7 In fact approximately 40 per cent of the country’s adult population has one or more conflict-related traumatic experiences, the rate higher among the elderly, 7 as this population had the highest level of exposure to the repetitive impact of trauma and toxic stress. For example, the 30-year conflict in Northern Ireland results in it having the highest level of 12-month and lifetime PTSD in the world – estimated at some 26 per cent. Importantly, the prevalence of PTSD is much higher when individuals are survivors of moral atrocities. 6 Post-traumatic stress disorderĪn extreme form of traumatic stress is known as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a diagnostic/conceptual framework in existence since 1980 – a product of the post-Vietnam era. 4,5 However, in prolonged conflict, trauma experiences are more repetitive and frequently compounded by factors such as denial, secrecy, retribution and revenge. Definitions of traumatic stress lack consensus however, trauma is an emotional response to a terrible event such as an accident, rape or natural disaster of which typical post-event symptoms include shock, denial, unpredictable emotions, flashbacks, strained relationships and even physical symptoms like headaches or nausea. One of the inevitable consequences of conflict is its ability to generate vast numbers of people vulnerable to the effects of psychological trauma – namely traumatic stress. At this present moment the number of refugees and internally displaced persons is at its highest level since the Second World War. 2,3 Today the world is facing an unprecedented number of humanitarian emergencies brought about through the consequences of human atrocities and natural disasters. The global burden of trauma in the 21st century is a phenomenon that cannot be overstated. However, in the intervening years, recognition has been growing of the social, economic, and political legacy of the Troubles, and, in particular, of the transgenerational effect of conflict-related trauma on the mental health of the population.’ Rory O’Connor and Siobhan O’Neill 1 It is a more prosperous and peaceful place than it was before the signing of the Belfast or Good Friday Agreement in 1998 and the formal ending of the decades-long conflict thereafter. ‘Northern Ireland is a changed place – for the better. Helping to lift the global burden of trauma will have far-reaching consequences for generations to come, argues Derek Farrell.
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